Justice as Fairness: The Basic Structure of Society Must Withstand the Veil of Ignorance

Whether a society's basic institutional structure is just should be tested through the 'veil of ignorance' thought experiment: if people would still accept an institutional arrangement without knowing their social position, then that arrangement is just. This thought experiment eliminates personal bias and forces people to think about justice from a universal perspective.

Source: A Theory of Justice, John Rawls, 1971 (Harvard University Press) / Justice as Fairness: A Restatement, John Rawls, 2001 (Harvard University Press)

Difference Principle: Inequalities Are Just Only If They Benefit the Least Advantaged

Socioeconomic inequalities are not inherently just; they can only be accepted when they benefit the least advantaged members of society. This principle opposes pure elitism and requires that any justification of social inequality must demonstrate that it ultimately benefits the most vulnerable groups.

Source: A Theory of Justice, John Rawls, 1971 (Harvard University Press)

Overlapping Consensus: The Foundation of Political Justice in Pluralistic Societies

In pluralistic societies, political justice cannot rely on any single comprehensive moral doctrine (such as religion or philosophy), but must be built on an 'overlapping consensus' among different moral traditions—common political principles that all parties can accept from their own moral standpoints.

Source: Political Liberalism, John Rawls, 1993 (Columbia University Press)

Primary Goods: The Standard Unit for Just Distribution

Just distribution should be measured by 'primary goods' (liberties, opportunities, income, wealth, and social bases of self-respect), not utility or happiness. Primary goods are what any rational person needs regardless of their life goals—a common standard for fairly comparing different life situations.

Source: A Theory of Justice, John Rawls, 1971 (Harvard University Press)

Veil of Ignorance

When designing institutional rules, pretend you don't know what role you will play in them, thus eliminating self-interested bias

Two children splitting a cake: let the one who cuts choose last, and they will naturally cut as evenly as possible. This is the everyday version of the veil of ignorance.

Reflective Equilibrium

Repeatedly adjust between moral intuitions and theoretical principles until they reach an internally consistent equilibrium

When a theoretical principle leads to conclusions that contradict our strong moral intuitions, we can either revise the principle or revise the intuition—the key is finding the best balance between the two.

Original Position

A hypothetical choice situation: rational people behind the veil of ignorance choose basic social principles, yielding fair principles of justice

When designing a tax system, if decision-makers don't know whether they will be rich or poor, what tax rate structure would they choose? The answer reveals the principles of a fair tax system.

Early Justice Theory Construction

1950-1971

Critiquing utilitarianism, building justice as fairness

Published a series of papers critiquing utilitarianism, gradually constructing the veil of ignorance and original position framework, culminating in 'A Theory of Justice' in 1971.

Response to Criticism Period

1971-1993

Responding to communitarian criticism, turning toward political liberalism

Facing communitarian critics like Sandel and MacIntyre, Rawls progressively restricted justice theory from moral to political philosophy, emphasizing overlapping consensus.

Late International Justice Period

1993-2002

Extending justice theory to international relations

Published 'The Law of Peoples' (1999), extending the justice framework to international relations, exploring the possibilities and limits of global justice.

Comprehensive Restatement Period

1999-2002

Systematic restatement and final synthesis

Published 'Justice as Fairness: A Restatement' (2001), systematically revising and clarifying justice theory—the final form of his thought.